‘Devilish’ Masculinity and Female Sexuality in Gothic Literature

“No consideration whatever should prevent him from enjoying her”: Autonomy and Patriarchal Rule in The Monk and Zofloya; or The Moor

Gender dynamics are often a central theme in Gothic literature, particularly through the depiction of women and their roles within patriarchal structures. Matthew Lewis’s The Monk (1796) exemplifies the “male Gothic,” characterized by its explicit horror and “masculine transgression of social taboos, marked by violent rape,” a portrayal that overtly sexualizes women (Wallace 3). While the female characters in The Monk are ostensibly virtuous and innocent, they are simultaneously subjugated, with Antonia serving as the archetype of patriarchal oppression. In contrast, Charlotte Dacre’s Zofloya; or The Moor (1806), written in response to The Monk, subverts traditional gender roles in Gothic literature. Instead of male dominance, Dacre positions a woman as the embodiment of horror. Across both texts, Lewis and Dacre employ female characters to explore a moral dichotomy between purity and corruption, ultimately reflecting societal perceptions of women in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, as exemplified by the respective downfalls of Antonia and Victoria.

Carol M. Davison’s Gothic Literature 1764-1824 asserts that “women’s autonomy and identity were being entirely denied” during this period (Davison 96). This denial is evident in both The Monk and Zofloya; or The Moor through the depiction of female characters’ actions and fates. In The Monk, women’s bodies are presented as property of the patriarchy, with rape functioning as a tool of control and subjugation. Lewis writes that Ambrosio becomes the “master of her person,” a phrasing that underscores the complete erosion of Antonia’s bodily autonomy as she “in vain struggled to avoid” his advances (Lewis 326-8). In contrast, Dacre’s Zofloya reimagines control through the lens of female agency, albeit a corrupted and villainous one. Victoria’s pursuit of power mirrors Ambrosio’s domination, as she adopts traditionally masculine traits to assert authority, described as “the most wild and horrible ideas [taking] possession of her brain” (Dacre 84).

Although Victoria displays masculine ambition, her physical description retains an angelic femininity—she is “beautiful and accomplished as an angel” (Dacre 4). This duality enhances her power, as she uses her outward appearance to manipulate others while concealing her true intentions. Victoria’s dynamic contrasts with Lilla, who is depicted as a “blooming fairy” (Dacre 99). This juxtaposition underscores Victoria’s ability to wield masculinity to her advantage, overpowering Lilla with the authority typically reserved for men. Her jealousy and hatred culminate in Lilla’s gruesome demise, described as the most violent and graphic in the novel, solidifying Victoria’s dominance. As Dianne Hoeveler observes, Victoria’s murder of Lilla exemplifies the destructive rivalries among women in the text, portraying them as “enemies of each other” (Hoeveler 193).

The theme of gendered death is also prominent in The Monk. While male characters, such as Ambrosio, receive comparatively dignified deaths, female characters endure violent and dehumanizing ends. Ambrosio’s death is depicted with relative serenity, as the text describes the location of his body with an almost peaceful tone: “where Ambrosio lay” (Lewis 377). In contrast, the Prioress’s death is grotesque, her body reduced to “a mass of flesh, unsightly, shapeless, and disgusting” (Lewis 306). This disparity illustrates the moral and physical degradation inflicted upon women, aligning their punishment with their gender and perceived moral failings.

Antonia’s characterization as perpetually innocent and naïve further highlights the patriarchal framework of The Monk. Her ignorance of the anatomical differences between men and women underscores her infantilization, as she naively claims, “Does that make a saint? Bless me! Then am I one” (Lewis 19). Agnieszka Łowczanin identifies Antonia as epitomizing “all that is expected of undemanding femininity,” a trait that renders her especially vulnerable (Łowczanin 134). Her descent into the dungeon, surrounded by “graves, and tombs, and skeletons,” symbolizes the violation of her innocence within a patriarchal system that offers no refuge (Lewis 326).

Victoria, in contrast, is shaped by her abandonment and lack of parental guidance, which forces her into self-sufficiency. This absence of traditional role models fosters her masculine traits and eventual transition from heroine to villain. Her assertion of power reaches its peak when she declares to Lilla, “I come to give thee liberty!—the liberty of death!” (Dacre 143). Victoria’s transformation reveals the complexities of female autonomy, as her actions blur the lines between empowerment and destruction. However, her reliance on Zofloya ultimately undermines her agency, as he manipulates her for his own ends. Dacre concludes the novel with a warning about human fallibility, cautioning that “the arch enemy ever waits to take advantage of the failings of mankind” (Dacre 172).

The downfall of both Victoria and Antonia exemplifies the broader commentary on female autonomy in Gothic literature. Antonia’s naivety and social disparity with Lorenzo render her aspirations unattainable, her innocence exploited by Ambrosio’s lust for power. As Mourad Romdhani notes, Antonia’s “dream of a perfect life with Lorenzo is ruined by a bitter reality,” her desires co-opted and corrupted by a patriarchal society (Romdhani 66). In her final moments, Antonia laments, “Is my ruin not completed?... let me return to my home and weep unrestrained my shame and my affliction” (Lewis 329). Her shame, compounded by societal and moral expectations, reflects the damning consequences of patriarchal dominance.

In conclusion, gender representation in The Monk and Zofloya; or The Moor serves as a lens through which both authors critique societal norms. Lewis characterizes women like Antonia as embodiments of innocence and virtue, whose downfall underscores their lack of autonomy within a patriarchal framework. Conversely, Dacre subverts traditional roles by portraying Victoria as a woman wielding masculine power, though her betrayal by Zofloya ultimately reinforces the fragility of female agency. Both characters’ fates—marked by moral corruption and demise—highlight the ways in which societal constraints and gendered expectations dictate the trajectories of women’s lives within Gothic literature.

References:

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Dacre, C., Zofloya Or, The Moor: “Her Proud Rage subsided, Her Eyes We’re Cast on the Earth’”. London Horse’s Mouth, 2018.

Davison, C. Gothic Literature 1764-1824. 2nd ed. University of Wales Press, 2019.

Hoeveler, D. ‘Charlotte Dacre’s Zofloya: A case study in miscegenation as sexual and Racial

Nausea.’ European Romantic Review, 2008.

Lewis, M.G., The Monk. Penguin Classics, 1998.

Łowczanin, A. Death and the Woman in M. G. Lewis’s The Monk. Artykuly, 2013.

Mulvey-Roberts, M., “The Female Gothic Body.” Women and the Gothic: An Edinburgh Companion, edited by Avril Horner and Sue Zlosnik, Edinburgh University Press, 2016, pp. 106–19, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1bgzdfx.11.

Romdhiani, M. “Critique of Social and Political Institutions in Matthew Lewis’ The Monk: Shaking the Unshakable and Revising the Unthinkable”. Galaxy: An International

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Wallace, D. and Smith, A. The Female Gothic: New Directions. 1st ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.